The global shift towards sustainability is accelerating, with the solar energy sector playing a crucial role in this transformation. Solar Photovoltaic (PV) technology is widely used to generate electricity without emissions, leading to its widespread expansion across the world over the last few decades and so is the waste. IRENA renewable capacity Statistics 2025 indicate that 585 GW of renewable energy was added in 2024 and solar energy with 451.9 GW dominated the total renewable capacity. In 2024, China dominated installed solar capacity with 278 GW, followed by the US (38.2 GW) and India (24.5 GW).
As Solar PV panels have a lifespan of around 18-25 years, the accumulation of solar PV is also inevitable. Solar Waste encompasses end-of-life solar photovoltaic (PV) modules, panels, and cells, whether fully or partially discarded. It also includes rejects and waste from manufacturing, refurbishment, and repair processes, as well as solar panels damaged during transportation, handling, storage, and installation. Global PV waste is expected to increase from 43,500–250,000 metric tons in 2016 to over 70 million tons by 2050. Between 2025 and 2050, the United States is projected to generate 24.93 million tonnes of photovoltaic (PV) waste, while the European Union is expected to produce 36.23 million tonnes. Solar waste and its management pose various environmental concerns, including air pollution, water pollution, waste of precious resources, loss of materials, and waste of energy. Crystalline silicon (c-Si) panels are composed of more than 90 per cent glass, polymer, and aluminium, which are classified as non-hazardous waste. However, recycling challenges arise due to smaller components, including silicon, silver, and trace amounts of tin and lead, which together make up around 4 per cent of the panel’s mass.
Thin-film panels consist of more than 98 per cent glass, polymer, and aluminium, also classified as non-hazardous waste. However, they contain small amounts of copper and zinc (around 2 per cent of the mass), which may be environmentally hazardous. Additionally, they also include semiconductor materials such as indium, gallium, selenium, cadmium telluride, and lead, requiring specialized treatment. Therefore, solar waste needs to be identified and classified clearly. It cannot be just included in e-waste and managed the same way e-waste is being managed. Further, recycling pathways need to be developed, which can guide the waste stream and its management. Next, Balance-of-System (BoS) from Solar PV will also need to be looked into while developing regulatory frameworks.
Recovery of precious materials and rare earth metals during recycling and reuse also requires research and innovation. Research on solar waste management is steadily expanding, gaining the attention it deserves. However, it’s crucial to note that End-of-Life (EoL) solar PV modules are still classified as general waste in most countries, meaning that dedicated regulatory frameworks for their management remain absent in the majority of nations. This gap underscores the need for policy advancements to establish clear disposal and recycling guidelines for solar PV waste, ensuring sustainable management aligned with circular economy principles. In China, the State Council introduced the Waste Electrical and Electronic Product Recycling Management Regulation in 2009, which came into effect in January 2011.
This regulation mandates the collection and centralized recycling of e-waste through various mechanisms. Producers can handle collection and recycling independently or delegate these tasks to sellers, after-sales service providers, or e-waste recyclers, with disposal entrusted to qualified institutions. In the US, federal regulations govern solid and hazardous waste, specifically the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) which apply to discarded solar panels as well. The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) empowers the EPA to regulate hazardous waste comprehensively, covering its generation, transportation, treatment, storage, and disposal. It also establishes a structured approach for managing non-hazardous solid waste to ensure environmental responsibility. Currently, Washington, New Jersey, North Carolina, and California are the only U.S. states with laws or regulations specifically addressing PV module recycling.
Meanwhile, California, Hawaii, and Rhode Island have introduced proposed bills that, if enacted, would establish dedicated recycling policies for solar panels. Additionally, state-led working groups in California, Illinois, and Minnesota are actively studying end-of-life (EoL) management strategies, including PV module recycling. The European Union has taken the lead in regulating photovoltaic (PV) electronic waste, establishing collection, recovery, and recycling targets specific to PV panels. Under the extended producer responsibility principle, the EU Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive mandates that all producers supplying PV panels to the EU market – regardless of their location – must finance the collection and recycling of end-of-life panels sold in Europe.
The Directive also mandates that every EU country maintain a national register, requiring reporting on installed PV module volumes and ensuring collection and recycling targets are met. The European Union has also established several standards detailing the technical requirements for PV waste management and treatment. Committed to reaching 500 GW of non-fossil fuel-based energy capacity by 2030, India is positioning itself as a global leader in clean energy. As of January 20, 2025, the nation’s total non-fossil fuel-based energy capacity stands at 217.62 GW. Solar energy continued to lead India’s renewable energy expansion, comprising 47 per cent of the total installed capacity. In 2024, the country added 18.5 GW of utility-scale solar, marking an impressive 2.8-fold increase from 2023. India’s rooftop solar sector saw remarkable expansion in 2024, adding 4.59 GW of new capacity – a 53 per cent increase compared to 2023. In a study by Sharma, Mahajan, & Garg (2024), solar waste in India is estimated to reach 6.64 million tonnes under a Business-As-Usual (BAU) scenario due to early loss, while the regular loss scenario would generate 5.48 million tonnes by 2040.
In contrast, under an ambitious scenario, projected waste levels increase significantly, reaching 10.30 million tonnes from early loss and 8.51 million tonnes from regular loss by the end of 2040. These findings highlight the urgency of establishing robust recycling frameworks and policy interventions to manage end-of-life solar PV waste sustainably. Solar PV waste is categorised as E-waste in India and is regulated under E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022, notified by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change on 2 November 2022. These rules classify 106 categories of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE), including solar photovoltaic (PV) panels, cells, and modules, as outlined in Schedule-I of the regulations. Within this framework, solar PV components are designated under CEEW 14 in terms of the EEE Code.
E-Waste management operates under the Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) framework, which sets recycling targets for all producers as outlined in Schedule-III and Schedule-IV of the regulations. Compliance with these targets is ensured through the purchase of EPR certificates from registered e-waste recyclers, promoting environmentally sound waste processing. However, the provisions exclude solar photovoltaic (PV) modules, panels, and cells from these e-waste recycling targets, leaving them outside the scope of current EPR obligations. Recently, CPCB has prepared a draft guideline for the storage and handling of waste of Solar Photovoltaic modules or panels or cells under E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022. These guidelines intend to provide technical guidance on the transport, handling, and storage of waste generated from solar PV panels, modules, or cells, including their components.
Additionally, they apply to rejects from manufacturing, refurbishment, and repair processes. In Chapter V of E-Waste (Management) Rules (2022), the management of solar photovoltaic (PV) modules, panels, and cell waste will be managed by manufacturers, producers, and recyclers. The manufacturers, producers, and recyclers of solar PV are mandated to register on the designated portal and Store waste PV modules, panels, and cells until 2034-35 according to CPCB guidelines. They also have to file annual returns on the portal and ensure compliance with the standard operating procedures (SOPs) set by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). India has a significant opportunity to develop robust recycling frameworks and policy interventions to manage end-of-life solar PV waste sustainably. The draft guidelines are welcome steps in this direction.
(The writer is Assistant Professor, Lady Irwin College.)